Psyche and Neurosis

In the past century, and especially in the past half-century, thanks to technological development, Neurology has been growing exponentially, as the direct study of the Nerve has become feasible.  As a result, observable chemical and electrical processes has rendered all previous connotations of 'nerves' and 'nervous' obsolete.  Likewise, the current meaning of 'neurosis'--literally, a disorder of a nerve--bears little resemblence to that of its prominent usage a century ago, as is evidenced by the fact the treatment of such disorders is now universally pharmacological, not psychoanalytical.  In other words, Freud's concept of Neurosis, one of the centerpieces of his practice, is not merely obsolete, but is a reflection of a concept of the Psyche which is Phenomenalist, with no neurological correlate, e. g. an Oedipus Complex absent any corresponding neural malfunctioning.

Psyche and Reason

Plato precedes Aristotle in conceiving Reason as the internal organizing principle of the Psyche.  But, while for his successor the concept is instantiated in only a personal Psyche, for Plato, a Polis, as well as its citizens individually, possesses a Psyche.  Now, Kant's innovation is to bridge the two concepts--to conceive oneself as a member of a Rational whole.  However, absent an understanding of that original intra-Psychic structure, and of Plato's dual application of it, Reason can be, and often is, e. g. in Freud's model of the Psyche, posited as confronting the Ego as a hostile alien force, i. e. as part of the Superego.

Ego, Happiness Principle, Reality Principle

As has been previously discussed, Freud does not consider the possibility that the Ego is fundamentally governed by the Happiness Principle, which seeks internal harmony.  A homeostatic mechanism such as the inner ear is evidence of such a principle, and that one might resist eating unhealthful food shows that repression that is independent of external factors is likewise an internal factor in behavior.  Accordingly, the Reality Principle mediates relations not between the gratification-seeking of the Id and society, but between the latter and the harmony-seeking of the Ego--even the fear of punishment for tabooed wishes is that which might be localized at a different part of the organism than that which would be the site of gratification if unrepressed.  So, if the Id is a threat to Civilization, it is only because of a failure of the Happiness Principle, which could be due to some internal malfunction, or because social conditions render harmonization impossible.

Ego, Pleasure, Happiness

According to Freud, the Ego functions to coordinate the Pleasure-seeking of the Id with external conditions.  It is, thus, governed by the Reality Principle, with deferral, e. g. sublimation, as its defining characteristic.  However, this model misses a vital function of those of Aristotle and Spinoza, thereby failing to recognize that the Ego is governed by a different principle.  For, in each of those, the equivalent of the Ego primarily seeks, independent of external influences, a harmonization of the manifold of drives of the organism, that can be called Happiness.  In other words, on this account, the Ego is governed by the Happiness Principle, while the Pleasure Principle governs specific Id drives, and, furthermore, the two can be in conflict, e. g. eating some spicy food can gratify the taste buds, but can cause thirst, and/or upset the stomach, thereby disrupting harmony.  The distinction entails that the Id is not unitary, as Freud generally holds, but a manifold, which may be one reason why he does not, or cannot, recognize that the Ego seeks a satisfaction that is different in kind from Pleasure.

Pleasure, Gratification, Stimulation

In Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud infers the existence of a Death Drive from behavior that he calls "repetition compulsion".  The pivotal stage in his reasoning is that such behavior is not Pleasure-seeking, but is motivated by "an urge to restore an earlier stage of things".  In turn, he concludes that the ultimate such stage is inorganic existence, i. e. death.  However, his concept of Pleasure preempts the possibility of a different earlier stage.  For, that concept--Gratification--entails that Pleasure can occur at only the end of some behavioral episode, thereby abstracting from the possibility of Pleasure at the outset of an episode, i. e. excitation.  In other words, he fails to consider that Pleasure can also be Stimulation, which, as occurring at an "earlier stage of things", could explain Repetition Compulsion without need of recourse to a Death Drive.

Pleasure Principle and Death Drive

Freud moves 'beyond the Pleasure Principle' as follows: 1. The Id is governed by a Life-principle; 2. The Life-principle is the Pleasure-Principle; 3. Some behavior seems to seek suffering; 4. Therefore, in addition to a Life-principle, the Id is also governed by a Death Drive.  Now, the staunchest denier of the existence of a Death Drive, Spinoza, would likely reject #2, on the ground that Pleasure is not equivalent to the Life-principle, but is only a representation of it.  However, that still leaves #3 unchallenged, and, from the pursuit of Pain, #4 still follows.  In contrast, the stronger challenge to #2 is that Pleasure and Pain are not merely representations of obective conditions, but are signals that seek the continuation, or the discontinuation, respectively, of an objective condition, e. g. pain that signals that damage to one's hand will occur if one does not move it from a hot surface.  On that account, the seeking of Pain is the seeking of a stimulus, not the seeking of a deteriorating objective condition, and, hence, even if peculiar, is no evidence of a Death-drive.  So, #3 might lead Freud beyond the Pleasure Principle, but necessarily to a Death Drive.

Soul, Body, Pleasure

Behavior that Freud characterizes as 'repetition compulsion' convinces him to abandon the thesis that the Id is governed by the Pleasure Principle, since there seems to be no Pleasure involved in it, and to consider it as evidence of a Death Drive.  However, it can also be interpreted as a different vacillation in his theory.  For, Pleasure is a Phenomenon, i. e. an event in Consciousness, so, when taken as unrelated to some physical event, e. g. gratification in eating vs. the addition of vital nutrients to the organism, it is an indication of a Soul-Body split.  In contrast, Repetition Compulsion is strictly physical, and, hence, if taken as a Psychic event, as evidence of a Soul-Body unity, but not that of a 'death drive'.  So, Freud's historically significant, as has been previously discussed, introduction of the latter, may be based on a faulty inference from the apparent absence of Pleasure in some behavior.